HIGHER EDUCATION SYSTEM
The Indian education system continued in the form of ashrams, in temples and as indigenous schools. During the medieval period,maktabas and madrassas became part of the education system.During the pre-colonial period, indigenous education flourished in India. This was an extension of the formal system that had taken roots earlier. This system was mostly religious and spiritual form ofeducation. Tols in Bengal, pathshalas in western India, chatuspadis in Bihar, and similar schools existed in other parts of India. Local resources via donations supported education. References in texts
and memoirs inform that villagers also supported education in southern India.As we understand, the ancient education system of India focused on the holistic development of the students, both inner and outerself, thus preparing them for life. Education was free and not centralised. Its foundations were laid in the rich cultural traditionsof India thereby helping in the development of the physical,intellectual, spiritual and artistic aspects of life holistically.
Our present day education system has a lot to learn from the ancient education system of India. Therefore, the stress is being laid on connecting learning to the world outside the school. Today
educationists recognise the role and importance of multilingual and multicultural education, thereby connecting the ancient and the traditional knowledge with contemporary learning
ANCIENT EDUCATION SYSTEM IN INDIA —
In ancient India, both formal and informal ways of education system existed. Indigenous education was imparted at Home, in Temples, Pathshalas, Tols, Chatuspadis and Gurukuls. There were people in homes, villages and temples who guided young children in imbibing pious ways of life.Temples were also the centres of learning and took interest in the promotion of knowledge of our ancient system.
Students went to viharas and universities for higher knowledge.Teaching was largely oral and students remembered and meditated upon what was taught in the class.
Gurukuls, also known as ashrams, were the residential places of learning. Many of these were named after the sages. Situated in forests, in serene and peaceful surroundings, hundreds of students
used to learn together in gurukuls. Women too had access to education during the early Vedic period. Among the prominent women Vedic scholars, we find references to Maitreyi, Viswambhara, Apala, Gargi and Lopamudra, to name a few.During that period, the gurus and their shishyas lived together
helping each other in day-to-day life. The gurukul was also the place where the relationship of the guru and shishya strengthened with time. While pursuing their education in different disciplineslike history, art of debate, law, medicine, etc., the emphasis was not only on the outer dimensions of the discipline but also on enriching inner dimensions of the personality.
Many monasteries/viharas were set up for monks and nuns to meditate, debate and discuss with the learned for their quest for knowledge during this period. Around these viharas, other
educational centres of higher learning developed, which attracted students from China, Korea, Tibet, Burma, Ceylon, Java, Nepal and other distant countries.
VIHARAS AND UNIVERSITIES-
The Jataka tales, accounts given by Xuan Zang and I-Qing (Chinese scholars), as well as other sources tell us that kings and society took active interest in promoting education. As a result many famous educational centres came into existence. Among the most notable universities that evolved during this period were situated at Takshashila, Nalanda, Valabhi, Vikramshila, Odantapuri and Jagaddala.
These universities developed in connection with the viharas. Those at Benaras, Navadeep and Kanchi developed in connection with temples and became centres of community life in
the places where they were situated. These institutions catered to the needs of advanced level students.
Such students joined the centres of higher learning and developed their knowledge by mutual discussions and debates with renowned scholars.
TAKSHASHILA OR TAXILA
In ancient times, Takshashila was a noted centre of learning,including religious teachings of Buddhism, for several centuries. It continued to attract students from around the world until itsdestruction in the 5th century CE. It was known for its higher education and the curriculum comprised the study of ancient
scriptures, law, medicine, astronomy, military science and the
eighteen silpas or arts.
Takshashils was an ancient Indian city, which is now in north-western Pakistan. It is an important archaeological site and the UNESCO declared it to be a World Heritage Site in 1980. Its fame
rested on the University, where Chanakya is said to have composed his Arthashastra.Archaeologist Alexander Cunningham discovered its ruins in the mid-19th century.Takshashila became famous as a place of learning due to its teachers'expertise. Among its noted pupils were the legendary Indian grammarian,
Panini. He was an expert in language and grammar and authored one of the greatest works on grammar called Ashtadhyayi. Jivaka, one of the most renowned physicians in ancient India,
and Chanakya (also known as Kautilya), a skilled exponent of statecraft, both studied here. Students came to Takshashila from Kashi, Kosala, Magadha and also from other countries in spite of the long and arduous journey they had to undertake.
He would admit as many students as he liked and taught what his students were keen to learn. Debate and discussions were the primary methods of teaching. Teachers were assisted by their
advanced level students.
NALANDA UNIVERSITY
The ancient Nalanda was a centre of learning from the 5th century CE to 12th century CE. Located in present day Rajgir, Bihar, India, Nalanda was one of the oldest universities of the world and UNESCO declared the ruins of Nalanda Mahavihara, a world heritage site. The new Nalanda University is envisaged as a centre of inter-civilisational dialogue. Nalanda, when Xuan Zang visited it,was called Nala and was a centre of higher learning in various subjects.The University attracted scholars from the different parts of the country as well as world. The Chinese scholars I-Qing and Xuan Zang visited Nalanda in the 7th century CE. They have given
vivid accounts of Nalanda. They have noted that as many as one hundred discourses happened on a daily basis, in a variety of disciplines through the methods of debate and discussions. Xuan Zang himself became a student of Nalanda to study yogashastra. He has mentioned that the Chancellor of Nalanda, Shilabhadra, was the highest living authority in yoga. The courses of study offered by
Nalanda University covered a wide range, almost the entire circle of knowledge then available. Students at Nalanda studied the Vedas and were also trained in fine arts, medicine, mathematics, astronomy, politics and the art of warfare.
ROLE OF COMMUNITY
At that time, knowledge was considered sacred and no fee was charged. Contributions towards education were considered the highest form of donation. All members of the society contributed in
some form or the other. Financial support came from rich merchants,wealthy parents and society.
Besides gifts of buildings, the universities received gifts of land. This form of free education was also prevalent in other ancient universities like Valabhi, Vikramshila and Jagaddala.
At the same time in the south of India, Agraharas served as centers of learning and teaching. South Indian kingdoms also had other cultural institutions known as Ghatika and Brahmapuri.
A Ghatika was a centre of learning including religion and was small in size. An Agrahara was a bigger institution, a whole settlement of learned Brahmins.
Higher Education in the Post-Independence Period
Higher education is the basis of future innovation and progress. Independent India inherited ownership of its system of higher education from the colonialists, but the need for the reconstruction of education was felt long before independence. However, it was only after independence that the nationalleadership had an independent opportunity to tackle the problem. Nehru‟s remarks to the educational conference of 1948 (Ghosh, 2000a p. 178) very
strongly expressed the view that Whenever conferences were called to form a plan for education in India, the tendency, as a rule, was to maintain the existing system with slight modification.
This must not happen now. Great changes have taken place in the county and the educational system . These national goals are found in the Indian Constitution.These national goals are: (a) Democracy, (b) Secularism, (c) elimination of poverty, (d) to create a socialist society, and (5) to create national integration(Naik, 1965 pp. 78-80).
Radhakrishnan Commission
The Radhakrishnan Commission of 1948 envisaged that as follows:
The academic problem has assumed new shape; we have now a widerconception of the duties and responsibility of universities. They have to provide leadership in politics and administration, the professions, industry and commerce. They have to meet the increasing demand for every type of highereducation, literacy and scientific, technical and professional (knowledge). They must enable the country to attain, in as short a time as possible, freedom from want disease and ignorance, by the application and development of scientific and technical knowledge(Government of India (1950), Report of University Education Commission).As Chair of the Commission, Dr. S. Radhakrishnan recommended the
reconstruction of university education as essential to meet the demand for scientific, technical and other human power needed for the socio-economic development of the country.
The Commission was also in favour of the idea of setting up rural universities to meet the need of rural reconstruction in industry, agriculture and various walks of life. The universities should be constituted as autonomous bodies to meet the new responsibilities, (Central) University Grants Commission
be established for allocating grants, and finally, university education be placed in the concurrent list.
Kothari Commission (1964-66)
The most important document on Education in India is the report of the Education Commission under the chairmanship of Dr. D. S. Kothari, then Chairman, University Grants Commission, to advise the Government of India“ The national pattern of education and on the general principles and policies for the development of education at all stages and in all aspects.” A Radical improvement in the quality and standard of higher
education and research
1. Expansion of higher education to meet manpower requirements of the Nation and the rising social ambitions and expectations of the people, and
2. Improvement of university organization and administration.The Commission recommended special measures for major universities to ensure quality of research development of other universities and affiliated colleges, improvement in teaching and evaluation by re-organisation of courses
and examinations, opportunities for part-time education, and special attention to women‟s education. As far as the implementation of the Kothari Commission is concerned
The policy aims at not only developing human power for serving the economy but also at developing crucial values (Power, 1995 p. 40). The policy envisages education for equality and an understanding of the diverse socio-cultural systems of the people while motivating the younger generations towards
international co-operation and peaceful co-existence (Ghosh, 2000a p. 184). As regards higher education, the documentation informing the policy expressed great concern regarding the conditions of the colleges and universities so the policy emphasises consolidation and expansion of facilities. In fact the policy indicates a major thrust in higher education (Mukhopadhyay, 1999 pp. 54-55)
incorporating:
a. expansion of higher education
b. improvement of the quality of higher education, and
c. increased relevance and job orientation in higher education.
It is evident that much thought has been given to identifying the
problems faced by higher education in India and to formulating policies and
programs for their mitigation.
NCERT
The NCERT was established in 1961. It functions as a resource centre in the eld of schooleducation and teacher education. Publication of school textbooks and other educational material
like teachers’ guides/manuals etc. are its major functions.NCERT is an autonomous body fully funded by the Ministry of Human Resource and Development (MHRD)
There is a common educational structure (10+2+4) followed all over the country.
VES
Vocational education is imparted through Industrial Training Institutes (ITIs) and polytechnics.
In the Words of Indian Government:
We give them roots, we give them wings
And great joys from, little things,
A hope that they will soar ,
A hope that they will try,
We are sure that one day ,
Our children will learn to Fly.
Satutory body and their functions
The origin of the Indian Education Department dates back to pre-Independence days when forthe first time a separate Department was created in 1910 to look after education. However, soon
after India achieved its Independence on 15th August. 1947, a full edged Ministry of Education
was established on 29th August 1947. The nomenclature and responsibilities of the Education
Department has undergone changes from time to time since Independence.
The University Grants Commission (UGC) of India is a statutory body set up by the Indian
Union government in 1956, and is charged with coordination, determination and maintenance of
standards of higher education. It provides recognition to universities in India, and disburses funds
to such recognized universities and colleges. Its headquarters is in New Delhi, and six regional
centres in Pune, Bhopal, Kolkata, Hyderabad, Guwahati and Bangalore.
1. encourages contact between students and faculty,
2. develops reciprocity and cooperation among students,
3. encourages active learning,
4. gives prompt feedback,
5. emphasizes time on task,
6. communicates high expectations, and
7. respects diverse talents and ways of learning
Central University
A Central University or a Union University in India is established by Act of Parliament andare under the purview of the Department of Higher Education in the Union Human Resource Development Ministry. In general, universities in India are recognized by the University Grants
Commission (UGC), which draws its power from the University Grants Commission Act, 1956.
The types of universities controlled by the UGC include:
State universities
are run by the state government of each of the states and territories of India, and are usuallyestablished by a local legislative assembly act.
Deemed university
or Deemed-to-be-University, is a status of autonomy granted by the Department of Higher
Education on the advice of the UGC, under Section 3 of UGC Act, 1956.
Private universities
are approved by the UGC. They can grant degrees but they are not allowed to have off -campus
affiliated colleges.
Apart from the above universities, other institutions are granted the permission to au-
tonomously award degrees.
Funding Agency
Government or Non-Government organization providing monetary grant for research. Follwing
are the major funding agencies in India
1. University Grants Commission ( UGC), New Delhi. www.ugc.ac.in
2. Indian Council of Social Science Research (ICSSR), New Delhi www.icssr.org
3. Department of Science and Technology (DST) New Delhi . www.dst.gov.in
4. Council of Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR), New Delhi. www.csir.res.in
5. Department of Atomic Energy (DAE); BRNS. www.barc.ernet.in
6. Department of Biotechnology ( DBT), New Delhi. www.dbtindia.nic.in
7. Department of Non Conventional Energy Sources ( DNES), New Delhi. www.mnre.gov.
in
8. Defence Research and Development Organization (DRDO). www.drdo.nic.in
9. Indian Council of Agricultural Research. www.icar.org.in
10. Ministry of Environment & Forest. www.envfor.nic.in/funding
.
Elementary Education in India
Education is important not only for development of one’s personality, but also for the sustainedgrowth of nation.It is the foundation on which the development of every citizen and the nation
as a whole hinges. The quality of elementary education in India has also been a major cause of
worry for government
Sarva Siksha Abhiyan
The current scheme for universalization of Education
which is one of the largest education initiatives in the world. After the District Primary Education
Programme (DPEP) of 1994, the govt. has now launched the "Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan" or SSA. Sarva
Shiksha Abhiyan was launched in 2001 to universalize and improve the quality of elementary
education in India. It has set 2007 as the deadline for providing primary education in India and
2010 as the deadline for providing useful and relevant elementary education to all children in the
6 to 14 age group.
Every child between the ages of 6 to 14 years has the right to free and
compulsory education. The government schools shall provide free education to all the children.
Private schools shall admit at least 25% of the children in their schools without any fee.
Education in Urban and Rural areas
Despite all the e orts of the government, universalization of education in India remains a distant
dream. While the literacy rate is 65.38% according to 2001 census, the female literacy rate is
54.16%. While 80. 3% urban people are literate, 59.4% of the rural population is literate.
.
Secondary Education System
Secondary education can be instrumental in shaping and directing a child for his bright future.Secondary education serves as a link between primary and higher education. A child’s future
depends a lot on type of education the child receives.
The Secondary education is supported by the following organisations under the administrative
control of the Union Department of Education: Some of the institutes are:
• National Council of Educational Research and Training (NCERT)
• Central Board of Secondary Education (CBSE)
• National Institute of Open Schooling (NIOS)
The National Policy on Education (NPE), 1986, has provided for environment awareness, science
and technology education, and introduction of traditional elements such as yoga into the Indian
secondary school system.
NCERT is an autonomous body fully funded by the Ministry of Human
Resource and Development (MHRD). The NCERT was established in 1961. It functions as a
resource centre in the eld of school education and teacher education. Publication of school.
textbooks and other educational material like teachers’ guides/manuals etc. are its major
functions. It aims at making environmental education an integral part of curriculum in school
education.
Central Board of Secondary Education
The CBSE was set up by a special resolution of the Government of India in 1929 at Ajmer with aview to play a useful role in the held of Secondary Education and to raise its standard.
The CBSE also conducts all India entrance
examinations at the under graduate level for pre-medical/pre-dental, engineering and architecture
courses. The CBSE has constantly been engaged in process of curriculum design,
in-service teacher empowerment programmes and development of textual material.
CBSE has introduced CONTINUOUS AND COMPREHENSIVE EVALUATION (CCE) at the sec-
ondary level.The scheme of CCE discourages mechanical testing. It envisages employment of
variety of tools and techniques for assessment in informal and formal settings which are more
interesting, relevant and meaningful and involve learners for greater participation and learning.
It is a system of school based assessment that covers all aspects of student’s development. It
emphasizes two fold objectives. Continuity in evaluation and assessment of broad based learning.
CCE will cover the scholastic and co scholastic areas of school education.
# Higher Education :
India has signifcant advantages in the 21st century knowledge race:1. It has a large higher education sector -the third largest in the world in student numbers,
after China and the United States.
2. It uses English as a primary language of higher education and research.
3. It has a long academic tradition. Academic freedom is respected.
4. There are a small number of high quality institutions, departments, and centres that can
form the basis of quality sector in higher education.
5. The fact that the States, rather than the Central Government, exercise major responsibility
for higher education creates a rather cumbersome structure, but the system allows for a
variety of policies and approaches.
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